I am a child twenty-first century 20

Jeffery L. Nicholas, Alasdair MacIntyre and Bishop John Shelby Spong ((essay by Fr Stanislaw Barszczak) 1. Alasdair MacIntyre on Tradition– MacIntyre sees three rival theories as dominating moral discourse (at least in the West). He calls them Tradition, Encyclopaedia, and Genealogy. (1) TRADITION MacIntyre stresses that there is no philosophical position that is not bound up in a tradition. It is by belonging to a tradition, by participating in it, and being changed by it (as well perhaps as changing it) that a person forms a moral position. There is no other way, according to MacIntyre. It is an illusion to think one can be a pure individual or possess a traditionless, timeless moral reason. In his book After Virtue, he defends Aristotle’s conception of human nature and morality, rooted in the polis and in tradition, against Enlightenment views and also against the moral relativism that has followed Enlightenment’s crisis. The real choice, he tells us, is between Nietzsche and Aristotle. Nietzsche was right, he says, in exposing Enlightenment illusions of objectivity. The Nietzschean exposé and the Nietzschean position become inevitable once one accepts Enlightenment. The importance of Nietzsche for MacIntyre is that he is the most consistent modern thinker on morality. What Nietzsche realises is that if “God is dead”, if modernity has rejected the view of human nature and its telos which operates in Aristotelianism (and Thomism), then modernity should also drop the traditional values which are logically connected to Aristotelianism and Thomism. Nietzsche realised that this was precisely what modern moral theories like utilitarianism failed to do – they try to combine traditional virtues inconsistently with a modern view of the self. Hence Nietzsche’s sneering at utilitarianism as “secular Christianity” and his own championing of the search for new values more consistent with a new view of the self. But the question for MacIntyre is : “Was it right in the first place to reject Aristotle?” In Three Rival Versions… , MacIntyre seems to have extended his defence of Aristotle to include a defence of Thomas Aquinas (who combined Aristotle’s ideas with those of St. Augustine). The Thomist/Aristotelian position he is championing is, he admits, merely one tradition among others. His task – by no means completed – is to try and show that Thomism is the most coherent tradition (and therefore, presumably, either the most useful or the most true). (2) ENCYCLOPAEDIA MacIntyre uses ‘Encyclopaedia’ as a blanket-term for all Enlightenment thinkers and those post- Enlightenment thinkers still touched by the ideal of objectivity and neutrality in ethics. Thus his blanket seems to spread pretty wide to include Kant’s moral philosophy, J.S. Mill, Karl Marx, G.E.Moore, and probably also evolutionary ethical positions of the Darwinian naturalist mould. The basic flaw of all moral thinking touched by Encyclopaedia, for MacIntyre, is that it has not been chastened by the Nietzschean critique. It is blind to its own time-bound tradition, believing it is describing human nature and its values as it is at all times and all places. In the case of Kant and Moore, the muddle derived from Enlightenment separation of fact and value is more tortuous. (3) GENEALOGY MacIntyre uses the terms ‘genealogy’, ‘Nietzscheanism’, ‘emotivism’, and ‘relativism’ more or less interchangeably. He is concerned with identifying a modern sort of moral relativism which perhaps receives its characteristic form in Nietzsche and emotivism: moral values are not objective but are the expression of subjective feeling; furthermore, no values can be ultimately justified and no set of values can be rationally justified better than any others. MacIntyre’s attitudes to these views is partly favourable. He applauds them for criticising the illusion of objectivity central to Enlightenment. He agrees that the subjective, historical element – the ‘tradition’ – must always be present. Pure neutral objectivity is an illusion. Where MacIntyre disagrees with ‘genealogy’ is in its conclusion that, because pure objectivity is impossible, it therefore follows that all ‘traditions’ are as good or bad, true or false, as each other. Against such relativism in truth and values, MacIntyre claims it is possible that one tradition -in his eyes Thomism – is more comprehensive, and therefore more true and valuable than the rest. He says: “The encyclopaedic, the genealogical, and the Thomistic tradition-constituted standpoints confront one another not only as rival moral theories but also as projects for constructing rival moral narratives. Is there any way that one of these rivals might prevail over the others? One possible answer was supplied by Dante: that moral narrative prevails … which is able to include its rivals within itself, not only to retell their stories as episodes within its own story, but to tell the story of the telling of their stories as such episodes.” (Three Rival Versions pp.80-81) MacIntyre’s ambitions for Thomism seem almost Hegelian: to evolve a position which includes all possible rivals to that position as ‘moments’ or ‘partial aspects’ of itself; and, furthermore, to convince the rivals of the truth of this… So, Alasdair MacIntyre on Tradition says as follows: The traditions through which particular practices are transmitted and reshaped never exist in isolation for larger social traditions. What constitutes such traditions? We are apt to be misled here by the ideological uses to which the concept of a tradition has been put by conservative political theorists. Characteristically such theorists have followed Burke in contrasting tradition with reason and the stability of tradition with conflict. Both contrasts obfuscate. For all reasoning takes place within the context of some traditional mode of thought, transcending through criticism and invention the limitations of what had hitherto been reasoned in that tradition; this is as true of modern physics as of medieval logic. Moreover when a tradition is in good order it is always partially constituted by an argument about the goods the pursuit of which gives to that tradition its particular point and purpose. So when an institution- a university, say, or a farm, or a hospital–is the bearer of a tradition of practice or practices, its common life will be partly, but in a centrally important way, constituted by a continuous argument as to what a university is and ought to be or what good farming is or what good medicine is. Traditions, when vital, embody continuities of conflict. Indeed when a tradition becomes Burkean, it is always dying or dead. (see, Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue, p. 221) This is a good encapsulation of MacIntyre‘s “conservative Marxism,” where he uses dialectical techniques to undermine liberal Enlightenment traditions and movement conservatism. The idea of a thriving institution as always being in a state of becoming is appealing because it maintains the notion of an active, integral participation on the part of the players, not the meaningless repetition of desiccated institutions… One point to make clear, though: when MacIntyre speaks of argument over the traditions being established in an institution, I believe he means that this argument plays out through the different, conflicting practices of the participants, rather than in an explicit dispute over the definition of the purpose and methods of the institution. The definition is articulated by the acts, not the words, of the participants. Ossification sets in when the people in a group begin arguing endlessly over definition, attempting to codify implicitly established but imprecise tradition. The most creative thinkers become bored and depart. Action is replaced by memorial enshrinement and a self-conscious glorification of the past that has led up to this crowning moment where the institution is fully defined- and dead. This is not how it always plays out. The pressure to establish a working practice in the face of potential failure and annihilation often spurs the vital conflict that MacIntyre mentions. Without that urgency, the arguments often begin before the practice does. 2. Contribution to the development of a critical theory of society. An explanation of substantive reason — In Reason, Tradition, and the Good, Jeffery L. Nicholas addresses the failure of reason in modernity to bring about a just society, a society in which people can attain fulfillment. Developing the critical theory of the Frankfurt School, Nicholas argues that we rely too heavily on a conception of rationality that is divorced from tradition and, therefore, incapable of judging ends. Without the ability to judge ends, we cannot engage in debate about the good life or the proper goods that we as individuals and as a society should pursue. Jeffery Nicholas has written an important and valuable book that invites its readers to discover the difficulties of late modern Western thought from the perspective of twentieth-century critical theory, and to consider a response to those difficulties drawn from the work of Alasdair MacIntyre and Charles Taylor. So, Nicholas claims that the project of enlightenment defined as the promotion of autonomous reason failed because it was based on a deformed notion of reason as mere rationality, and that a critical theory of society aimed at human emancipation must turn to substantive reason, a reason constituted by and constitutive of tradition. To find a reason capable of judging ends, Nicholas suggests, we must turn to Alasdair MacIntyre’s Thomistic-Aristotelianism. Substantive reason comprises thinking and acting on the set of standards and beliefs within a particular tradition. It is the impossibility of enlightenment rationality to evaluate ends and the possibility of substantive reason to evaluate ends that makes the one unsuitable and the other suitable for a critical theory of society. Nicholas’s compelling argument, written in accessible language, remains committed to the promise of reason to help individuals achieve a good and just society and a good life. This requires, however, a complete revolution in the way we approach social life.(see, Jeffery L. Nicholas, Reason, Tradition and the Good: MacIntyre’s Tradition-Constituted Reason and Frankfurt School Critical Theory, University of Notre Dame Press, 2012, 226 pp.) “Habermas moved beyond the limitations of earlier Frankfurt School theorists in order to preserve an account of reason as emancipatory. Nicholas uses a conception of reason as tradition-constituted to move beyond Habermas, while still preserving an account of reason as emancipatory. This is a book of the highest interest,” Alasdair MacIntyre had noted that. What may surprise some is that he does this not only by developing the work of the Frankfurt School theorists but also by bringing their analysis into a fruitful dialogue with the vital work of a scholar who is often thought of as their opponent: Alasdair MacIntyre. What results is a fascinating study that finds some common ground between MacIntyre and the Frankfurt School and shows the resources each give us for a renewal of critical thought.” Jeffery L. Nicholas is interested in what he calls a substantive conception of reason, a reason that is tradition-based, non-formal, non-instrumental and capable of undoing modernity’s differentiation of scientific, moral and aesthetic spheres of rationality. In positive terms, substantive reason grounds a critical theory of society and enables emancipatory projects. Nicholas’s elucidation and defense of his view comprises a critique of subjective reason that relies on Max Horkheimer’s work, a criticism of Jürgen Habermas’s communicative reason and an explanation of substantive reason that looks to Alasdair Macintyre…In introducing his concerns, Nicholas points to the lack of ethical deliberation or moral discussion in various domains. Michael Jordan as a spokesperson for Nike thinks the question of sweatshop labor is not pertinent to his job; pilots involved in bombing Baghdad at the start of the war in Iraq claim they were just following orders. Nicholas concedes that some citizens do criticize and evaluate the policies of their firms and countries. “Yet,” he continues, these critiques lack both substance and force. They lack substance because they do not arise from a shared vision of right and wrong or a shared sense of community and justice and they lack force because they cannot appeal to shared standards of reason that might motivate change. The reason these critiques cannot appeal to a shared vision or shared standards of reason is that “they arise from a reason that has fettered itself by reducing all value to self preservation.” This reason is subjective reason. Whereas objective reason aims at an objective order in terms of which action ends can be evaluated, Nicholas follows Horkheimer in arguing that subjective reason devolves into formal and instrumental rationality. Formal rationality denudes reason of content while instrumental rationality directs it towards pre-given ends, or more precisely, to the pre-given end of self-preservation. Formalization strips rationality of the ability to judge goals as worthwhile in themselves apart from subjective interests — this is, the interest of self-preservation; instrumentalization harnesses rationality to any given goal and promotes the principle of self-preservation above all other ends. Nicholas does not think Habermas’s communicative reason solves the problem. In his attempt to uncover the rational basis of communication oriented to understanding, Habermas may point to the implicit guarantee speakers make to justify the validity claims to truth, rightness and sincerity inherent in their speech acts and to discourses in which these claims are challenged and possibly redeemed. Nevertheless, communicative reason falls short, Nicholas thinks, because it is itself unable to evaluate ends. Hence, although it may expand reason beyond instrumental rationality, it fails to attack and, in fact, takes up the formal side of subjective reason. Nicholas also argues, here following Charles Taylor, that the distinction Habermas makes between the right and the good or between morality and ethics cannot hold. Rather, socialized as we are in particular ways and holding particular conceptual resources and presuppositions, our particular conceptions of the good life necessarily condition our concepts of justice and morality. Likewise, Nicholas thinks Habermas’s “formality belies a certain standpoint” (see, Reason, Tradition, and the Good, p.87). What Habermas assumes to be a formal and procedural account of reason is simply unaware of its own commitments in making its highest goal that of coming to an understanding. Chapter three of Nicholas’s book turns to MacIntyre and to his account of a tradition-constituted reason. For MacIntyre a tradition is an argument extended through time in which certain fundamental agreements are defined and redefined both by those inside the tradition and in communication with those outside of it. Reason refers to “the standards of justification and exemplars of reasoning within a tradition” (98). Nicholas is not happy with the minimalist standards of justification and exemplars of reasoning of modern philosophers and philosophies. Nor is he happy with non-cosmological languages or, in other words, languages that have shed their commitments to certain beliefs and ways of life. Cosmological languages may be incommensurable. (By incommensurable, Nicholas means that the standards of justification peculiar to one tradition appear unreasonable when translated into another. He thinks the philosophies of Aristotle, Hume and Kant are incommensurable on these terms.) Nevertheless, non-cosmological languages such as modern English are in worse shape because they hold both a “dearth and a plethora of standards of reason to which to appeal.” On the one hand, a non-cosmological language incorporates all standards of reason; on the other hand it is committed to none. Hence, non-cosmological language speakers “starve: they cannot reason because they have been deprived of the very commitments that make rationality possible.” Fortunately, according to Nicholas, we can avoid this predicament by locking onto a “genuinely emancipatory substantive reason” (125). This concept of reason takes off from MacIntyre’s tradition-constituted reason but unites it more completely with a conception of the good. The final chapters of Nicholas’s book are devoted to spelling out this option. Substantive reason is a set of social practices that involve “thinking about and acting on the set of standards and beliefs of a particular social order.” This set involves “standards and exemplars of reasoning” that “constitute an element of the tradition” and “are informed by other aspects of the tradition including the values and symbolic generalizations, the general social practices and ways of life and the larger cosmology” (125-6). This cosmology includes a view of what is good and evil (132) and all these factors are interrelated. For instance, a tradition’s conception of the good establishes the appropriate ways of life. Likewise a tradition’s conception of the good is “the conception of the best that a human being can achieve given a particular understanding of human nature” (143). In this way, substantive reason provides for the evaluation of ends. We escape from subjective reason, Nicholas argues, when we engage in concrete social practices and traditions and pursue goods defined not by our own interests and desires but by practices and traditions. Although substantive reason is thus relative to a tradition, it eschews relativism. Here Nicholas cites MacIntyre’s account of epistemological crises. Members of a tradition can find that they are unable to resolve certain issues within its parameters. According to Nicholas, they may then look to another tradition but if they are to take its standards of reasoning seriously, they must “learn” it as another first tradition. Despite a passing reference to Gadamer, Nicholas does not think a tradition can provide resources for understanding another and suggests that we must rather move from one into the other. We can then look at our original tradition from the point of view of the other and resolve the issues we could not resolve from within it. Nicholas does not attempt to offer deep or novel interpretations of Horkheimer, Habermas or MacIntyre. Indeed, some readers may question his readings of them: is it the case, for example, that Habermas thinks that coming to an understanding is our highest aim or is it rather the case that he thinks it is a requirement of coordinating action? We might also read Nicholas’s vignettes and examples somewhat differently than he does. He maintains that subjective reason is inadequate because it cannot evaluate ends and because it differentiates spheres of rationality. Nevertheless, his vignettes and examples suggest that he does not really want to de-differentiate spheres of rationality so that questions of etiology, for example, become indistinguishable from questions of evil or standards of morality become the same as standards of beauty. The vignettes and examples are perhaps better characterized as stories of people who are not concerned with the morality of their actions than as stories of people who cannot be so concerned because of the differentiation of rationality spheres. Moreover, if subjective reason cannot evaluate ends or cannot evaluate them with sufficient substance and force, what are we to do? Is Nicholas asking us to find a tradition and commit ourselves to its ends and standards of reason? If so, and if we pick different traditions from one another, will the problem with which he begins his book not continue? That is, will we not continue to lack the “shared vision of right and wrong” and the “shared standards of reason” that robbed our evaluations of ends of their substance and force in the first place? At times, Nicholas suggests that we already do inhabit a tradition, that of subjective reason. The problem is that this tradition is inadequate, so mired in an epistemological crisis that we must look for another. But if we cannot solve our problem if we opt for different traditions, should we all become, like him, Thomistic-Aristotelians? On his view becoming a Thomistic-Aristotelian will require us to learn the tradition from bottom up as natives. Reason, Tradition and the Good does not try to help us with this task. Nevertheless, Nicholas does suggest that his future work will fruitfully bring the Thomistic-Aristotelian tradition to bear on the issues with which the early Frankfurt school was concerned: domination, the critique of ideology and commodity fetishism. Perhaps this future work, then, will help us make the transition.(see, http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/reason-tradition-and-the-good-macintyre-s-tradition-constituted-reason-and-frankfurt-school-critical-theory) 3. A fundamental rethinking of Christian belief– As a priest I am not interested in sleeping with Nicholas’s and MacIntyre’s views only. John Shelby “Jack” Spong (born June 16, 1931) is a retired American bishop of the Episcopal Church. From 1979 to 2000 he was Bishop of Newark (based in Newark, New Jersey). He is a liberal Christian theologian, religion commentator and author. He calls for a fundamental rethinking of Christian belief away from theism and traditional doctrines. Spong’s writings rely on Biblical and non-Biblical sources and are influenced by modern critical analysis of these sources (see especially Spong, 1991). He is representative of a stream of thought with roots in the medieval universalism of Peter Abelard and the existentialism of Paul Tillich, whom he has called his favorite theologian. A prominent theme in Spong’s writing is that the popular and literal interpretations of Christian scripture are not sustainable and do not speak honestly to the situation of modern Christian communities. He believes in a more nuanced approach to scripture, informed by scholarship and compassion, which can be consistent with both Christian tradition and contemporary understandings of the universe. He believes that theism has lost credibility as a valid conception of God’s nature. He states that he is a Christian because he believes that Jesus Christ fully expressed the presence of a God of compassion and selfless love and that this is the meaning of the early Christian proclamation, “Jesus is Lord” (Spong, 1994 and Spong, 1991). Elaborating on this last idea he affirms that Jesus was adopted by God as his son, (Born of a Woman 1992), and he says that this would be the way God was fully incarnated in Jesus Christ. He rejects the historical truth claims of some Christian doctrines, such as the Virgin Birth (Spong, 1992) and the bodily resurrection of Jesus (Spong, 1994). In 2000, Spong was a critic of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith of the Roman Catholic Church’s declaration Dominus Iesus, because it reaffirmed the Catholic doctrine that the Roman Catholic Church is the one true Church and, perhaps even more importantly, that Jesus Christ is the one and only savior for humanity. Spong has also been a strong proponent of the church reflecting the changes in society at large. Towards these ends, he calls for a new Reformation, in which many of Christianity’s basic doctrines should be reformulated.[1] His views on the future of Christianity are, “…that we have to start where we are. As I look at the history of religion, I observe that new religious insights always and only emerge out of the old traditions as they begin to die. It is not by pitching the old insights out but by journeying deeply through them into new visions that we are able to change religion’s direction. The creeds were 3rd and 4th century love songs that people composed to sing to their understanding of God. We do not have to literalize their words to perceive their meaning or their intention to join in the singing of their creedal song. I think religion in general and Christianity in particular must always be evolving. Forcing the evolution is the dialogue between yesterday’s words and today’s knowledge. The sin of Christianity is that any of us ever claimed that we had somehow captured eternal truth in the forms we had created.” Spong has debated Christian philosopher and apologist William Lane Craig on the resurrection of Jesus.(see, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Shelby_Spong) John Shelby Spong says: “If God does intervene why is there so much suffering? Do our prayers cause God to do what God might otherwise not do? If God has the power to intervene, would God depend on our prayers to force God to do it? Are these not the problems that such an intervening theistic miracle-working deity would create? Most of us never think about these things. We are only concerned to know that somewhere there is a parent God on whom we can call who will do our bidding. That is not the mark of faith but of our own spiritual immaturity. The time has come for human beings to grow up, to claim the grandeur of our humanity and to abandon our Santa Claus view of God. When we do that we will begin to raise very different questions about the nature of faith in the 21st century. The intervening God who answers our intercessory prayers is a comfortable fiction that is no longer worthy of our worship. This kind of honesty scares people who want security not truth. I still think intercessory prayer has a place in the Christian life but it would take a book just to unload the distortions of the past and then to chart new definitions for the future. Suffice it now to say that the God who is the Source of Life, the Source of Love and the Ground of Being can only work through the life, the love and the being of people like you and me. So you and I must intervene wherever we can as God bearers. Our lives become our prayers. Prayer is not quite like saying, “Now I lay me down to sleep.” For those seeking to experience Christianity in a new and vibrant way, Episcopal Bishop John Shelby Spong offers fresh spiritual ideas. Over the past four decades, he has become one of the definitive voices for progressive Christianity. As a member of Bishop Spong’s online community, you’ll receive insightful weekly essays, access to all of the essay archives, access to message boards which will connect you with other believers in exile.John Shelby Spong says: “If God does intervene why is there so much suffering? Do our prayers cause God to do what God might otherwise not do? If God has the power to intervene, would God depend on our prayers to force God to do it? Are these not the problems that such an intervening theistic miracle-working deity would create? Most of us never think about these things. We are only concerned to know that somewhere there is a parent God on whom we can call who will do our bidding. That is not the mark of faith but of our own spiritual immaturity. The time has come for human beings to grow up, to claim the grandeur of our humanity and to abandon our Santa Claus view of God. When we do that we will begin to raise very different questions about the nature of faith in the 21st century. The intervening God who answers our intercessory prayers is a comfortable fiction that is no longer worthy of our worship. This kind of honesty scares people who want security not truth. I still think intercessory prayer has a place in the Christian life but it would take a book just to unload the distortions of the past and then to chart new definitions for the future. Suffice it now to say that the God who is the Source of Life, the Source of Love and the Ground of Being can only work through the life, the love and the being of people like you and me. So you and I must intervene wherever we can as God bearers. Our lives become our prayers. Prayer is not quite like saying, “Now I lay me down to sleep.” “Christianity is, I believe, about expanded life, heightened consciousness and achieving a new humanity. It is not about closed minds, supernatural interventions, a fallen creation, guilt, original sin or divine rescue,” atheist Episcopal Bishop John Shelby Spong says. All religion seems to need to prove that it’s the only truth. And that’s where it turns demonic. Because that’s when you get religious wars and persecutions and burning heretics at the stake… In the first gospel, Mark, the risen Christ appears physically to no one, but by the time we come to the last gospel, John, Thomas is invited to feel the nail prints in Christ’s hands and feet and the spear wound in his side/…/ It appears to be in the nature of religion itself to be prejudiced against those who are different./…/ Christianity is not about the divine becoming human so much as it is about the human becoming divine. That is a paradigm shift of the first order/…/ It appears to be in the nature of religion itself to be prejudiced against those who are different./…/ Let me say that I consider myself a deep believer in the reality of God. I might define God quite differently from the way some people in the Christian faith would do so, but I do not doubt the reality of that experience./…/ I spend my life studying that book, and every book I’ve written has in some sense been a book about the Bible, and that’s what I mean by reclaiming its value and its essence for a world that no longer treats it literally and no longer reads it traditionally/…/” So, when I’m asked to define God, I’m almost wordless, he says. What we need here to remember when going to build a healthy society of tomorrow. We are children of the twenty-first century. God is a Source of Love and Ground of Being and not only works for the time of my life, our love and our being human … We must intervene everywhere as bearers by God. Our lives are in our prayers, but that does not mean that now we lie down to sleep.(fin)

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